This study provides evidence of substantial increases in atmospheric ammonia (NH3) concentrations (14-year) over several of the worlds major agricultural regions, using recently available retrievals from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) aboard NASA's Aqua satellite. The main sources of atmospheric NH3 are farming and animal husbandry involving reactive nitrogen ultimately derived from fertilizer use; rates of emission are also sensitive to climate change. Significant increasing trends are seen over the US (2.61% yr(-1)), the European Union (EU) (1.83% yr(-1)), and China (2.27% yr(-1)). Over the EU, the trend results from decreased scavenging by acid aerosols. Over the US, the increase results from a combination of decreased chemical loss and increased soil temperatures. Over China, decreased chemical loss, increasing temperatures, and increased fertilizer use all play a role. Over South Asia, increased NH3 emissions are masked by increased SO2 and NOx emissions, leading to increased aerosol loading and adverse health effects.

Abstract

The Atmospheric Nitrogen Compounds II: Emissions, Transport, Transformation, Deposition and Assessment workshop was held in Chapel Hill, NC from 7 to 9 June 1999. This international conference, which served as a follow-up to the workshop held in March 1997, was sponsored by: North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources; North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, North Carolina Office of the State Health Director; Mid-Atlantic Regional Air Management Association; North Carolina Water Resources Research Institute; Air and Waste Management Association, RTP Chapter; the US Environmental Protection Agency and the North Carolina State University (College of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, and North Carolina Agricultural Research Service). The workshop was structured as an open forum at which scientists, policy makers, industry representatives and others could freely share current knowledge and ideas, and included international perspectives. The workshop commenced with international perspectives from the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Denmark. This article summarizes the findings of the workshop and articulates future research needs and ways to address nitrogen/ammonia from intensively managed animal agriculture. The need for developing sustainable solutions for managing the animal waste problem is vital for shaping the future of North Carolina. As part of that process, all aspects of environmental issues (air, water, soil) must be addressed as part of a comprehensive and long-term strategy. There is an urgent need for North Carolina policy makers to create a new, independent organization that will build consensus and mobilize resources to find technologically and economically feasible solutions to this aspect of the animal waste problem.

Ammonia (NH3) released to the atmosphere leads to a cascade of impacts on the environment, yet estimation of NH3 volatilization from cropland soils (VNH3) in a broad spatial scale is still quite uncertain in China. This mainly stems from nonlinear relationships between VNH3 and relevant factors. On the basis of 495 site-years of measurements at 78 sites across Chinese croplands, we developed a nonlinear Bayesian tree regression model to determine how environmental factors modulate the local derivative of VNH3 to nitrogen application rates (Nrate) (VR, %). The VNH3-Nrate relationship was nonlinear. The VR of upland soils and paddy soils depended primarily on local water input and Nrate, respectively. Our model demonstrated good reproductions of VNH3 compared to previous models, i.e., more than 91% of the observed VR variance at sites in China and 79% of those at validation sites outside China. The observed spatial pattern of VNH3 in China agreed well with satellite-based estimates of NH3 column concentrations. The average VRs in China derived from our model were 14.8 +/- 2.9% and 11.8 +/- 2.0% for upland soils and paddy soils, respectively. The estimated annual NH3 emission in China (3.96 +/- 0.76 TgNH3.yr(-1)) was 40% greater than that based on the IPCC Tier 1 guideline.

Excessive nitrogen (N) fertilization in intensive agricultural areas in the Taihu Lake region of East China has resulted in low N utilization efficiency and serious environmental problems, giving rise to the need for an urgent reduction in the N fertilization rate. However, no holistic evaluations of rice (Oryza sativa L.) yield effect and environmental effects of N fertilization have been conducted when recommending an optimal N rate. The current study provides an economic indicator and an evaluation model to account for the environmental effects of different N losses after N fertilizer application in the ecological and economic N rate for one rice season in the Taihu Lake region. Based on the assembled data and economic index, a general economic evaluation model to measure efficiently the cascading costs of the chemical N cycle at the regional scale was developed. Thereafter, fertilizer-stimulated benefit curves and fertilizer-induced cost curves were generated to determine an economically and ecologically optimal N application rate. The results revealed that the maximum net benefits were 3,123 yuan ha⁻¹ at 202 kg N ha⁻¹ for one rice season in the Taihu Lake region. Additional N application up to a rate of 263 kg N ha⁻¹ would increase rice production, but the increase in the total marginal costs would be slightly greater than the increase in marginal benefits. Among the marginal costs, the fertilizer and acidification costs were the greatest expenses, amounting to 1,716 yuan at 263 kg N ha⁻¹, followed by eutrophication and global warming costs. When compared with the conventional N fertilization rate, this recommended rate could decrease the amount of N applied to rice from 10 to 40%, thereby, enabling optimum economic and ecological results.

Ammonia (NH3) emission from agricultural sources has contributed significantly to air pollution, soil acidification, water eutrophication, biodiversity loss, and declining human health. Although there are numerous strategies for reducing NH3 emission from agricultural systems, the effectiveness of these measures is highly variable. Furthermore, the integrated assessment of measures to reduce NH3 emission both from livestock production and cropping systems based on animal and crop type is lacking. Therefore, we conducted a global meta-analysis and integrated assessment of measures to reduce NH3 emission from agricultural systems. Most of the studied mitigation strategies were effective in reducing NH3 emission. In the livestock production system, dietary additive, urease inhibitor (UI), manure acidification and deep manure placement have the highest mitigation potential relative to other mitigation strategies, with reduction ranges of 35.1-54.2%, 24.3-68.7%, 88.8-95.0%, and 93.8-99.7%, respectively, relative to the control, while manure storage management could significantly reduce NH3 emission by 70.0-82.1%. In the cropping system, fertilizer source, use of enhanced efficiency fertilizers, and method of field application are most effective for reducingNH3 emission. The use of ammonium nitrate, controlled release fertilizer (CRF), and deep placement of fertilizers could reduce NH3 emission by 88.3, 56.8, and 48.0%, respectively. Choosing a proper fertilizer is critical for decreasing NH3 emission from cropping systems. We conclude that carefully planned and adopted strategies suited for local conditions are promising for minimizing NH3 emission from agricultural systems on a global scale, while possible effects of those mitigation measures on the emission of greenhouse gases should be studied in the future.

This paper compares the h-indices of a list of highly-cited Israeli researchers based on citations counts retrieved from the Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar respectively. In several case the results obtained through Google Scholar are considerably different from the results based on the Web of Science and Scopus. Data cleansing is discussed extensively.

随着社会经济的发展，人类对精神层面产品的需求越来越多。生态系统具有文化服务功能，因此近年来学者对文化服务的研究和关注越来越多，发表的文献数量也在持续增加。通过收集与生态系统文化服务相关的文献资料，运用统计分析方法，试图理清国际生态系统文化服务研究脉络。利用Web of Science核心合集数据库，共析出样本文献1530篇，分别对文化服务的研究趋势、时段特征、作者分布、机构分布和文献期刊分布等进行分析。研究发现，生态系统文化服务研究逐渐从以生态学为主，演变为融合生态学、地理学、管理学、社会学等众多学科的综合研究。未来文化服务的研究将集中在文化服务价值的货币化评估、文化服务管理与应用、文化服务指标体系构建、文化服务价值制图、游憩功能和美学功能6大方向。

生态系统服务是生态学研究的核心和热点议题。近年来，各国和各相关机构对生态系统服务的研究力度不断加大。基于SCI-E和CNKI数据库，利用文献计量方法，分析了国内外生态系统服务研究的发展特征和变化趋势。研究结果表明：（1）国内外生态系统服务研究的发文量不断增加，发展态势良好。（2）发达国家是生态系统服务领域的主要研究力量，美国占据绝对领先地位；美国的加利福尼亚大学是主要研究机构；总体来看，国家和机构间的合作正在不断增强。（3）当前该领域的8类研究热点分别是生态系统服务机理研究，保护管理及可持续性、生物多样性、脆弱性、土地利用及景观变化、评估与模型、气候变化、政策与决策分析。从各个时期国内外研究热点整体分布情况来看，国际更侧重于生态系统服务及生态系统服务与人类福祉的依存关系的研究，国内则更加关注生态系统服务评估。（4）近年来中国在生态系统服务研究领域的国际地位有所提升，科研产出量显著增加，累积发文量居世界第5位，中国科学院是全球主要研究机构之一，但论文被引频次相对偏低，国际合作亟待加强和提升。

以中国学术期刊全文数据库(CNKI)为主要数据源, 采用文献计量分析法, 分析了中国生态脆弱性研究的现状与发展。结果显示, 自1989 年以来生态脆弱性在中国逐渐成为研究热点, 并形成三个发展阶段:1989-2000 年, 是以理论初探和区域对策等定性研究为主的初步发展阶段;2001-2007 年, 是以方法应用与实证评价为主, 并以数量大幅度增长为特点的迅速发展阶段;2008 年之后开始出现研究总结热潮和综合化研究趋势, 进入由单纯数量增长转向理论内涵建设的成熟发展阶段。在脆弱性研究进展中, 脆弱性实证评价研究相对发展迅速, 其实证研究区域由偏于西南喀斯特地区和北方农牧交错带逐渐趋于广泛和均衡, 但总体上脆弱性理论研究发展滞后于其方法应用研究, 并导致目前中国生态脆弱性实证评价方法缺乏统一的理论规范;生态脆弱性实证研究仍以生态系统脆弱性评价为主;已有研究成果的脆弱性综合评价指标中, 自然和经济类指标的比重和地区差异较大, 社会指标的比重和地区差异较小。

【目的】客观地分析国内外农业面源污染研究现状，明确当前的研究前沿与热点问题，为农业环境领域科研工作者与决策者提供参考。【方法】利用文献计量学方法，基于ISI Web of Science和CNKI数据库，根据发文量、发文期刊、被引频次等指标，分析近30年来农业面源污染研究的发展态势、前沿领域、研究机构以及国际合作状况等。【结果】共检索得到农业面源污染相关英文文献280篇，中文文献1 517篇。7个研究方向中，农业面源污染治理、现状调查与分析、以及对环境的影响最受关注，三峡库区、太湖流域、密云水库等典型流域污染控制是研究热点。沟渠氮、磷去除对面源污染治理有很重要的意义，目前仍缺乏深入研究，将是今后的一个重要突破口。过程模型模拟是主要的研究方法，野外观测与试验是对模型进行验证的重要手段。国际上研究农业面源污染影响力比较强的单位主要有美国的威斯康星大学、加州大学、爱荷华大学，英国的兰喀斯特大学等，国内实力较强的有中国科学院、北京师范大学、以及厦门大学。中国与美、英等国之间的合作比较多，有助于该领域研究紧跟国际前沿、瞄准热点问题、与世界高水平机构共同探讨解决问题的办法。美欧等发达国家和地区高影响力论文与期刊较多，中国在研究层次、团队实力、论文质量、主办期刊质量等方面有待于进一步提高，原创性成果与重要发现偏少，具有国际影响力的团队少，核心作者不突出。主要原因包括项目周期短，大规模系统性监测数据较少；国产模型普及率不高，各研究单位之间合作不够深入，模型与数据共享机制不完善；缺少中远期团队建设规划，研究群体不稳定等。为解决以上问题，需要从多方面努力。首先，制定农业面源污染观测长期规划，形成系统性成果；其次，鼓励原创性研究，紧跟当前研究前沿与热点，探讨未知的科学问题；第三，整合各行业资金来源，稳定资助力度，凝聚高效研究群体，广泛开展合作交流与数据共享；最后，优化对单位以及个人的评价指标体系，促进国内期刊快速成长。【结论】流域尺度面源污染治理与过程模型模拟是当前农业面源污染研究的前沿领域，农业面源污染物在沟渠与河流网络中的迁移转化机理将成为未来的研究重点，中国虽然发文量增长迅速，但高影响力论文偏少，优秀国际期刊不足。中国主办的期刊中，表现较好的有《Journal of Environmental Sciences-China》和《中国农业科学》。

Excessive N fertilization in intensive agricultural areas of China has resulted in serious environmental problems because of atmospheric, soil, and water enrichment with reactive N of agricultural origin. This study examines grain yields and N loss pathways using a synthetic approach in 2 of the most intensive double-cropping systems in China: waterlogged rice/upland wheat in the Taihu region of east China versus irrigated wheat/rainfed maize on the North China Plain. When compared with knowledge-based optimum N fertilization with 30-60% N savings, we found that current agricultural N practices with 550-600 kg of N per hectare fertilizer annually do not significantly increase crop yields but do lead to about 2 times larger N losses to the environment. The higher N loss rates and lower N retention rates indicate little utilization of residual N by the succeeding crop in rice/wheat systems in comparison with wheat/maize systems. Periodic waterlogging of upland systems caused large N losses by denitrification in the Taihu region. Calcareous soils and concentrated summer rainfall resulted in ammonia volatilization (19% for wheat and 24% for maize) and nitrate leaching being the main N loss pathways in wheat/maize systems. More than 2-fold increases in atmospheric deposition and irrigation water N reflect heavy air and water pollution and these have become important N sources to agricultural ecosystems. A better N balance can be achieved without sacrificing crop yields but significantly reducing environmental risk by adopting optimum N fertilization techniques, controlling the primary N loss pathways, and improving the performance of the agricultural Extension Service.

At the global scale, among all N (nitrogen) species in the atmosphere and their deposition on to terrestrial vegetation and other receptors, NH3 (ammonia) is considered to be the foremost. The major sources for atmospheric NH3 are agricultural activities and animal feedlot operations, followed by biomass burning (including forest fires) and to a lesser extent fossil fuel combustion. Close to its sources, acute exposures to NH3 can result in visible foliar injury on vegetation. NH3 is deposited rapidly within the first 4-5 km from its source. However, NH3 is also converted in the atmosphere to fine particle NH4+ (ammonium) aerosols that are a regional scale problem. Much of our current knowledge of the effects of NH3 on higher plants is predominantly derived from studies conducted in Europe. Adverse effects on vegetation occur when the rate of foliar uptake of NH3 is greater than the rate and capacity for in vivo detoxification by the plants. Most to least sensitive plant species to NH3 are native vegetation > forests > agricultural crops. There are also a number of studies on N deposition and lichens, mosses and green algae. Direct cause and effect relationships in most of those cases (exceptions being those locations very close to point sources) are confounded by other environmental factors, particularly changes in the ambient SO2 (sulfur dioxide) concentrations. In addition to direct foliar injury, adverse effects of NH3 on higher plants include alterations in: growth and productivity, tissue content of nutrients and toxic elements, drought and frost tolerance, responses to insect pests and disease causing microorganisms (pathogens), development of beneficial root symbiotic or mycorrhizal associations and inter species competition or biodiversity. In all these cases, the joint effects of NH3 with other air pollutants such as all-pervasive O3 or increasing CO2 concentrations are poorly understood. While NH3 uptake in higher plants occurs through the shoots, NH4+ uptake occurs through the shoots, roots and through both pathways. However, NH4+ is immobile in the soil and is converted to NO3- (nitrate). In agricultural systems, additions of NO3- to the soil (initially as NH3 or NH4+) and the consequent increases in the emissions of N2O (nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas) and leaching of NO3- into the ground and surface waters are of major environmental concern. At the ecosystem level NH3 deposition cannot be viewed alone, but in the context of total N deposition. There are a number of forest ecosystems in North America that have been subjected to N saturation and the consequent negative effects. There are also heathlands and other plant communities in Europe that have been subjected to N-induced alterations. Regulatory mitigative approaches to these problems include the use of N saturation data or the concept of critical loads. Current information suggests that a critical load of 5-10 kg ha(-1) year(-1) of total N deposition (both dry and wet deposition combined of all atmospheric N species) would protect the most vulnerable terrestrial ecosystems (heaths, bogs, cryptogams) and values of 10-20 kg ha(-1) year(-1) would protect forests, depending on soil conditions. However, to derive the best analysis, the critical load concept should be coupled to the results and consequences of N saturation.

China is experiencing intense air pollution caused in large part by anthropogenic emissions of reactive nitrogen(1,2). These emissions result in the deposition of atmospheric nitrogen (N) in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, with implications for human and ecosystem health, greenhouse gas balances and biological diversity(1,3-5). However, information on the magnitude and environmental impact of N deposition in China is limited. Here we use nationwide data sets on bulk N deposition, plant foliar N and crop N uptake (from long-term unfertilized soils) to evaluate N deposition dynamics and their effect on ecosystems across China between 1980 and 2010. We find that the average annual bulk deposition of N increased by approximately 8 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare (P < 0.001) between the 1980s (13.2 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare) and the 2000s (21.1 kilograms of nitrogen Per hectare). Nitrogen deposition rates in the industrialized and agriculturally intensified regions of China are as high as the peak levels of deposition in northwestern Europe in the 1980s(6), before the introduction of mitigation measures(7,8). Nitrogen from ammonium (NH4+) is the dominant form of N in bulk deposition, but the rate of increase is largest for deposition of N from nitrate (NO3-), in agreement with decreased ratios of NH3 to NOx emissions since 1980. We also find that the impact of N deposition on Chinese ecosystems includes significantly increased plant foliar N concentrations in natural and semi-natural (that is, non-agricultural) ecosystems and increased crop N uptake from long-term-unfertilized crop-lands. China and other economies are facing a continuing challenge to reduce emissions of reactive nitrogen, N deposition and their negative effects on human health and the environment.

To achieve food and environmental security, closing the gap between actual and attainable N-use efficiency should be as important as closing yield gaps. Using a meta-analysis of 205 published studies from 317 study sites, including 1332 observations from rice, wheat, and maize system in China, reactive N (Nr) losses, and total N2O emissions from N fertilization both increased exponentially with increasing N application rate. On the basis of the N loss response curves from the literature meta-analysis, the direct N2O emission, NH3 volatilization, N leaching, and N runoff, and total N2O emission (direct + indirect) were calculated using information from the survey of farmers. The PFP-N (kilogram of harvested product per kilogram of N applied (kg (kg of N)(-1))) for 6259 farmers were relative low with only 37, 23, and 32 kg (kg of N)(-1) for rice, wheat, and maize systems, respectively. In comparison, the PFP-N for highest yield and PFP-N group (refers to fields where the PFP-N was within the 80-100th percentile among those fields that achieved yields within the 80-100th percentile) averaged 62, 42, and 53 kg (kg of N)(-1) for rice, wheat, and maize systems, respectively. The corresponding grain yield would increase by 1.6-2.3 Mg ha(-1), while the N application rate would be reduced by 56-100 kg of N ha(-1) from average farmer field to highest yield and PFP-N group. In return, the Nr loss intensity (4-11 kg of N (Mg of grain)(-1)) and total N2O emission intensity (0.15-0.29 kg of N (Mg of grain)(-1)) would both be reduced significantly as compared to current agricultural practices. In many circumstances, closing the PFP-N gap in intensive cropping systems is compatible with increased crop productivity and reductions in both Nr losses and total N2O emissions.

Soils underpin terrestrial ecosystem functions, but they face numerous anthropogenic pressures. Despite their crucial ecological role, we know little about how soils react to more than two environmental factors at a time. Here, we show experimentally that increasing the number of simultaneous global change factors (up to 10) caused increasing directional changes in soil properties, soil processes, and microbial communities, though there was greater uncertainty in predicting the magnitude of change. Our study provides a blueprint for addressing multifactor change with an efficient, broadly applicable experimental design for studying the impacts of global environmental change.